Nicholas of Russia

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Nicholas II of Russia
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This article is about the last Russian emperor. For information on the Pope, see Pope Nicholas II.
Nicholas II
Emperor of Russia, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Finland

Reign 1 November 1894-18 March 1917
Born 18 May 1868
Died 17 July 1918
Predecessor Alexander III
Successor Empire abolished
Consort Alexandra Fyodorovna of Hesse
Issue Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna
Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna
Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna
Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna
Grand Duke Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich
Royal House House of Romanov
Father Alexander III
Mother Maria Fyodorovna
Nicholas II of Russia (May 6 (O.S.)/May 18 (N.S.) 1868–July 17, 1918) (Russian: Никола́й II, Nikolay II) was the last Emperor of Russia, King of Poland, and Grand Duke of Finland. He ruled from 1894 until his forced abdication in 1917. Nicholas proved unable to manage a country in political turmoil and command its army in World War I. His rule ended with the Russian Revolution of 1917, after which he and his family were executed by Bolsheviks. Nicholas's full name was Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov (Никола́й Алекса́ндрович Рома́нов). His official title was Nicholas II, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias. He is sometimes referred to as Nicholas the Martyr due to his execution without trial and as Bloody Nicholas because of the tragic events during his coronation. Subsequent to his canonization, he has been regarded as Saint Nicholas The Passion Bearer by the Russian Orthodox Church.

Contents [hide]
1 Family background and early life
2 Becomes Emperor
3 Relationship with the Duma
4 Tsarevich Alexei's illness
5 The Great War
6 Revolution and abdication
7 Death
8 Mystery and Legend
9 Issue
10 Sainthood
11 DNA dispute
12 Further reading
13 External links
14 Footnotes



[edit]
Family background and early life
Nicholas was born in Saint Petersburg, the eldest son of Emperor Alexander III and Maria Fyodorovna (born Princess Dagmar of Denmark). His paternal grandparents were Alexander II of Russia and his first consort Marie of Hesse and by Rhine. His maternal grandparents were Christian IX of Denmark and Louise of Hesse-Kassel.

Nicholas did not have an easy childhood. He was constantly bullied by his father Alexander III who did not appreciate Nicholas's shy and sensitive disposition. In front of his friends, his father called him a "girlie-girl" and had doubts about his son succeeding him to the throne.[citation needed] His mother, Maria Fyodorovna, was a clinging possessive woman who spoiled Nicolas.

His brothers were: Alexander, born in 1869 but died in 1870 of meningitis. Grand Duke George Alexandrovich who was born in 1871, Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich in 1878. His sisters were: Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna, born in 1875 and Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna

Nicholas fell in love with Princess Alix of Hesse and by Rhine, a daughter of Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, the latter a daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Alexander did not approve of this match; hoping to cement Russia's new alliance with France, he had hoped that Nicholas would marry Princess Hélène, the daughter of Count Philippe of the House of Orleans. Only on his deathbed did Alexander consent to Nicholas' marriage to Alexandra for fear of imperiling the perpetuation of the Romanov Dynasty.

As Tsarevich, Nicholas did a considerable amount of travelling. During a notable trip to the Empire of Japan, a failed assassination attempt by a sword-wielding man left him with a scar on his forehead. The quick action of his cousin, Prince George of Greece, who parried the second blow with his cane, possibly saved his life. The motivations for this attack remain unclear.

[edit]
Becomes Emperor
Deemed overly soft by his hard and demanding father, Nicholas received little grooming for his imperial role. When Alexander died at the age of 49 after an unexpectedly rapid deterioration of health, Nicholas felt so unprepared for the duties of the crown that he tearfully asked his cousin, "What is going to happen to me and all of Russia?" (Figes p18) He nevertheless decided to maintain the conservative policies favored by his father. While Alexander had concentrated on the formulation of general policy, Nicholas devoted much more attention to the details of administration.

His coronation was marked by the stampede on the Khodynka field, after he handed out free food and special mugs, which took the lives of over 1000 people.

In 1904, Nicholas was persuaded by his advisors to reject a Japanese offer of compromise, leading to a disastrous war with Japan which Russia lost. (Figes : A Peoples Tragedy p168) Although this defeat undermined the prestige of the monarchy at a time when discontent among workers and peasants was coming to a head, it did not immediately provoke a revolutionary outbreak. Indeed, the demonstrators who marched to the Winter Palace to present a petition to the Emperor on 22 January 1905, carried pictures of Nicholas and was led by the staunchly monarchist and agent provocateur Father Gapon. Nicholas himself, thinking that nothing out of the ordinary would occur, had already departed to his country palace for the weekend. Convinced that the Emperor would not permit the soldiers to shoot at his own subjects, the marchers ignored government orders to call off the demonstration and were cut down when the troops opened fire. Gapon, in shock at the carnage, repeated over and over, "There is no Tsar". That day seeds of the impending Russian revolution were lain.

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Name Birth Death Notes
Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna November 3 (O.S.)/November 15 (N.S.) 1895 July 17, 1918 executed at Yekaterinberg by the Bolsheviks
Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna May 29 (O.S.)/June 10 (N.S.) 1897 July 17, 1918 executed at Yekaterinberg by the Bolsheviks
Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna June 14 (O.S.)/June 26 (N.S.) 1899 July 17, 1918 executed at Yekaterinberg by the Bolsheviks
Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna June 5 (O.S.)/June 18 (N.S.) 1901 July 17, 1918 executed at Yekaterinberg by the Bolsheviks
Grand Duke Tsarevich Alexei July 30 (O.S.)/August 12 (N.S.) 1904 July 17, 1918 executed at Yekaterinberg by the Bolsheviks
[edit]
Sainthood

Icon of the Romanov Imperial FamilyIn 1981 Nicholas and his immediate family were canonised as saints by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia as martyrs. On August 14, 2000 they were canonised by the synod of the Russian Orthodox Church. They were not named martyrs, since their death did not result immediately from their Christian faith; instead they were canonised as passion bearers. According to a statement by the Moscow synod, they were glorified as saints for the following reasons:

In the last Orthodox Russian monarch and members of his family we see people who sincerely strove to incarnate in their lives the commands of the Gospel. In the suffering borne by the Royal Family in prison with humility, patience, and meekness, and in their martyrs deaths in Ekaterinburg in the night of 4/17 July 1918 was revealed the light of the faith of Christ that conquers evil.
[edit]
DNA dispute
Ever since Dr. Peter Gill's results were published and confirmed by American scientists, they have been disputed by some critics. The Russian Orthodox Church refused to acknowledge the remains as genuine.

During the internment of the bones in 1998, the bones were referred to as 'Christian victims of the Revolution'. One reason for this dispute was the absence of any mark from Nicholas's saber wound he received on a visit to Japan as the tsarevich. Tests done by Japanese scientists showed that the blood of Nicholas's nephew Tikhon did not match with the published profile of Nicholas obtained by Dr. Gill. A Stanford study done in 2003 suggested some sort of contamination. [3]

[edit]
Further reading
Editor: A.Yarmolinsky, "The Memoirs of Count Witte" New York & Toronto (1921)
Bernard Pares, "The Fall of the Russian Monarchy" London (1939), reprint London (1988)
Victor Alexandrov, "The End of The Romanovs"(contains the Sokolov Report), London (1966)
Robert K. Massie, Nicholas and Alexandra (1967)
Robert K. Massie, The Romanovs. The Final Chapter (1995) ISBN 345-40640-0
Paul Grabbe, "The Private World of the Last Tsar" New York (1985)
Andrei MaAylunas and Sergei , The Flight of the Romanovs (1999)
Anthony Summers and Tom Mangold, The File on the Tsar (1976)
Edvard Radzinsky, The Last Tsar: The Life and Death of Nicholas II (1992)
Greg King and Penny Wilson, "The Fate of the Romanovs" (2003)
Shay McNeal, "The Secret Plot to Save the Tsar" (2001)
[edit]
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Nicholas II of RussiaAlexander Palace Time Machine The Alexander Palace Time Machine
Letters of Nicholas II Letters of Nicholas II
Tsar at Stavka The Tsar at Stavka
Letters of the Tsar to the Tsaritsa 1914-1917 Letters of Nicholas II to his wife during WWI
Letters of Nicholas II Letters Written from Exile, compiled by Sarah Miller
At the Court of the Last Tsar - the memoirs of Mossolov, head of Nicholas's Court Chancellery from 1900-1916
Last Days at Tsarskoe Selo Last Days at Tsarskoe Selo by Count Paul Beckendorff
Thirteen Years at the Russian Court Thirteen Years at the Russian Court by Pierre Gilliard
Six Years at the Russian Court Six Years at the Russian Court by Margaret Eager
Memories of the Russian Court Memories of the Russian Court by Anna Vyrubova
Letters of Tsaritsa to the Tsar 1914-1917 Letters of the Tsaritsa to the Tsar 1914-1917
Marriage Ceremony of Nicholas and Alexandra Marriage Ceremony of Nicholas and Alexandra
Jewels of the Romanovs Jewels of the Romanovs
Nicholas and Alexandra Exhibition Nicholas and Alexandra Exhibition
An extensive list of sites dealing with this Tsar
The Tsar and Tsarina by Leon Trotsky.
Yakov Yurovsky's account of the Execution of the Imperial Family
Ipatiev House - Romanov Memorial An immensely detailed site on the historical context, circumstances and drama surrounding the Romanov's execution.
The Murder of Russia's Imperial Family, Nicolay Sokolov. Investigation of murder of the Romanov Imperial Family in 1918. In Russian
Nikolai II - Life and Death, Edvard Radzinski. (Later published in English as The Last Tsar: the Life and Death of Nicholas II.) In Russian.
FrozenTears.org A media presentation of the last Imperial Family.
Mother of Last Russian Tsar to Be Reburied "Moscow News"
[edit]
Footnotes
Note 1: (6 May 1868 to 4 July 1918 in the Julian Calendar.)

Note 2: Nicholas's full title was We, Nicholas the Second, by the grace of God, Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias, of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, King of Poland3, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauric Chersonesos, Tsar of Georgia, Lord of Pskov, and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia, and Finland, Prince of Estonia, Livonia, Courland and Semigalia, Samogitia, Białystok, Karelia, Tver, Yugra, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgaria, and other territories; Lord and Grand Duke of Nizhny Novgorod, Chernigov; Ruler of Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Beloozero, Udoria, Obdoria, Kondia, Vitebsk, Mstislav, and all northern territories ; Ruler of Iveria, Kartalinia, and the Kabardinian lands and Armenian territories - hereditary Ruler and Lord of the Cherkess and Mountain Princes and others; Lord of Turkestan, Heir of Norway, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Stormarn, Dithmarschen, Oldenburg, and so forth, and so forth, and so forth."

Note 3: In 1831 the Russian tsars were deposed from the Polish throne, but they soon annexed the country to be a part of Russia and abolished the separate monarchy. However, they continued to use the title. See: November Uprising for more details.

Heir apparent: March 14, 1881–November 1, 1894

House of Romanov
Born: 18 May 1868; Died: 17 July 1918
Titles of Nobility
Preceded by:
Alexander III Emperor of Russia
1894-1917 Succeeded by:
End of Title
King of Poland
1894-1917
Grand Duke of Finland
1894-1917 Vacant
Title next held by
Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse
Titles in Pretence
Preceded by:
None * NOT REIGNING *
Emperor of Russia
(1917-1918) Succeeded by:
Cyril Vladimirovitch(claimed since 1924)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia"
Categories: Articles with unsourced statements | Pretenders | Russian emperors | House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov | Murdered Russian monarchs | Rulers of Finland | World War I people | Russian saints | Knights of the Garter | British Field Marshals | Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath | People from Saint Petersburg | Deaths by firearm | 1868 births | 1918 deaths

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[princessflower]

The rayal family was and is the real GOVERNMENT OF RUSSIA!

If Russia was fighting to have a Government once again then like Putin said it would be the Empire Ross Putin is Bad! Orange! Then if there was ever a government in to put inot place in Russia then it would be the royals.Go look around in Russias passed Russia is a monarchy!

Star Kingdom is the royal family of Russia.Beautiful wonder perfect Anastasia is the Queen of Russia and Putin can be thrown out of a limo into the dirt and Anastasia can be put in his place and do a better job than him anyday and the rest of the royal family can rule russia once again.That should what they are for to avenge the royal familys not aginst them ever fight for them and never aginst them.For them to Rule Russia once again the royal Star family to Rule Russia again for a government of russia to come back again! Never ever take them away it is mean wrong and bad to government ever to ever even disrespect royals and make a revolution of freedom.

No more contradictions LISTEN to reason must I say it in Russian?

Freedom without the royal family kingdom with them to rule!Dont you understand you have to listen protect the royals of the world with them never use them aginst them without royals in the world the world is free with kingdoms the world has a government! Just understand save the royals family it is for them never aginst them.

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This story published 08/30/99
Written by Ursula Grosser Dixon


Russia's Reforming Tsar:
Peter the Great




--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Childhood

Tsar Alexis, having lost his first wife in childbirth, took a second wife, Natalya on February 1, 1671. The joy was great when on May 30, 1672 they became parents of a large, apparently healthy boy. They called him Peter after the apostle. He was born in the Terem Palace, the royal residence within the Kremlin, the walled and fortified central area of Moscow, capital of the Russian State. Peter’s world changed suddenly when he was not quite four years old. His father had caught a chill standing on the cold winter air at the annual event of blessing the waters of the Moscow River. Alexis died on February 8, 1676, and. his successor was his semi-invalid son Fedor of his first wife Maria, who reigned briefly as Feodor II. When he died six years later, Peter was proclaimed Tsar under the Regency of Peter’s mother Natalya. Peter was then ten years old. Three weeks later, his scheming half sister Sophia, wanting power for herself and her side of the family, instigated a palace revolution by the streltsy in favor of her feeble-minded brother Ivan, who had been passed over by the succession.

Peter stood with his mother on the Red staircase leading to the Facets Palace in the Kremlin and watched in sheer terror as his supporters were flung from the top of the staircase to be impaled by the halberds of the guardsmen below. From this time on he hated the sight of this Palace and he never again trusted the streltsy. As a result of this revolt, Ivan was proclaimed co-Ruler with Sophia as Regent. His mother, afraid to stay on in the Kremlin, moved with Peter and his younger sister to a modest estate in the village of Preobrazhensky near Moscow. There, Peter spent the rest of his childhood and early youth, returning to Moscow only on state occasions.

Visible from the hilltop estate, about two miles away, lay the German Quarter. There, Peter found men who could teach him things he wanted to know, as he was intelligent and eager for knowledge. From the age of twelve, with the help of skilled craftsmen at the German Quarters he began to learn trades. Peter hired the Dutchman Franz Timmerman as his tutor. One day, as Peter and Timmerman were exploring the outbuildings of one of the Romanov ancestral estates, they came across the decaying hulk of a small sailboat. Another Dutchman, Karsten Brandt, repaired and rigged the boat and showed Peter how to handle it. He took Peter to a large lake some 50 miles from Moscow and taught him how to sail. This was the beginning of his lifelong fascination with ships and the sea.

From his earliest childhood Peter loved playing soldier. At Preobrazhensky he called together the sons and grooms of the gentry and then called boys to volunteer from the next village of Semenovsky. He organized his playmates into small armies. He learned to judge people not by their titles, but by their qualities as individuals. By the time Peter was seventeen these play troops became the core of Peter’s army. Then he learned that Sophia wanted him killed. He fled to the monastery of the Holy Trinity-St. Sergius. Some of closest friends found him there and persuaded him to mount a coup against his half sister. When Peter rode in triumph into Moscow, the streets were lined with streltsy, requesting to be pardoned for what they had done seven years before. Peter’s half brother Ivan denounced all claims to the throne and Sophia was sent off to a nunnery for the rest of her life.


Peter’s Marriage

That year he followed his mother’s wishes and married a girl she had selected for him. Eudokia Lopukhin was a girl of the nobility, young, reasonable pretty, and although she meant well, she lacked spirit and imagination. She didn’t understand Peter’s ideas and they had little in common. After she produced two children, the ill-fated Alexis and another boy Alexander, who died in childhood, Peter had little to do with her. She too went into a convent and Peter eventually he divorced her.


Peter’s Visit to Western Europe

The first important act of Peter’s reign was a campaign against the Turkish bastion of Azov. The Turks were still the strongest military power in the world, and they refused to accept the loss of Azov. Peter was faced with a long, expensive war, which Russia could not fight alone. He needed allies; therefore he decided to go incognito with some of his most trusted advisers to the major capitals of Europe. He traveled under the name of Peter Mikhail. The group left Moscow on March 9, 1698. During the eighteen months of travel that took him through the Swedish Baltic provinces, Prussia and other north German states, Holland, England, Austria and Saxony, his interest remained insatiable. He stayed four months in Holland, going through the whole process of shipbuilding. In England he saw King William III, who presented Peter with a beautiful twenty-gun yacht. Peter saw English life and institutions: Parliament, Oxford, the Greenwich observatory, the arsenal, the mint, and the tower of London and Windsor castle. King William, however, had no interest in joining to fight the Turks, so Peter went on to Austria. There too negotiations for help against the Turks did not succeed. He was preparing to move on to Venice, when a courier arrived with the message that four regiments of the streltsy had revolted and were marching on Moscow. Peter left hurriedly for home. In Poland the message reached him that the revolt had been put down and the leaders executed. He met King Frederick Augustus of Saxony and Poland and then went on to Moscow. He arrived in the evening and went to see his mistress Anna Mons at the German Quarter. He was home after seventeen months and seventeen days. History records Peter’s European visit as the Great Embassy.


The Rise of St. Petersburg From the Swamps of the Neva

Failing to assemble an anti-Turkish coalition, Peter had to make peace with the Turks. He lost Azov and had to put aside temporarily his hopes for access to the Black Sea. After returning home from the Great Northern war, where he won a series of victories over the Swedish force, Peter started work on a fortress and port he named after his patron Saint, St. Petersburg. It was the unlikely place to build a city. Across the main branch of the river Neva, facing his fortress, he built his Admiralty. He had canals dug and he built his first house in St. Petersburg. It had only three small rooms, bedroom, dining room and study. It was of pine boards painted on the outside to look like a little Dutch house. In 1712 he ordered 1000 men of the lesser nobility to come with their families to St. Petersburg. They were to build houses there, and a similar order went to 500 merchants and shopkeepers. The Senate was still in Moscow, when Peter declared his new city on the river Neva the capital. All Senators were ordered to leave Moscow and reestablish themselves in St. Petersburg. Three years earlier Peter had smashed the Swedes in the battle of Poltova, and his goal was now to make Russia part of Europe.





Catherine Crowned

The war with Sweden had gone on for years. Finally, Russian victories and tireless diplomacy brought hostilities to an end on August 30, 1721. The following year Peter was declared Emperor of all Russia. Two years later Peter shared his acclaim with Catherine. His declaration said: "Our best beloved spouse, consort and Empress Catherine has been a great support to us…also in many military operations, putting aside her womanly weakness, of her own will she had been present with us and helped in every way possible…and so, for these labors of our spouse, we have decided that by virtue of the supreme power given us by God, she shall be crowned." Peter held the coronation, not in his beloved St.Petersburg, but in the Kremlin in Moscow. The coronation procession began from the Red Staircase. Catherine’s gown and all the dresses and finery for the grand festivities were ordered from France. Her cape was embroidered in gold with the Russian double eagle. Her crown sparkled with precious gems. When the moment came, Peter himself placed the crown on her head.


Peter’s Last Years

Peter wanted all people of St. Petersburg to be sailors. He issued an order that every able-bodied citizen must have a boat. Anyone who could not afford to buy one would be supported with public funds. All visitors to the Winter Palace or Summer Palace were asked to arrive by boat. In 1723 Peter brought his own little boat to St. Petersburg. It became known as the "Grandfather of the Russian Navy." There were many good times. In the summer many citizens assembled in the harbor on Sundays, and while orchestras played and vodka flowed, they sailed down the river led by Peter and Catherine. In November 1724 Peter saw a ship that had gone aground and was in danger of capsizing. He jumped into the cold water and helped save the crew, but the exposure to the frigid water brought him down with a cold. By Christmas he felt well enough, but then he had a relapse. He died in Catherine’s arms on January 28, 1725.




References

Peter the Great: His Life and World. Massie, Robert K. Ballantine Books, 1980.

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Typhoon EF-2000 Eurofighter /
Eurofighter is a single-seat, twin-engine, agile combat aircraft which will be used in the air-to-air, air-to-ground and tactical reconnaissance roles. The design of Eurofighter Typhoon is optimised for air dominance performance with high instantaneous and sustained turn rates, and specific excess power. Special emphasis has been placed on low wing loading, high thrust to weight ratio, excellent all round vision and carefree handling. The use of Stealth technology is incorporated throughout the aircraft’s basic design.
In September 1998 the Eurofighter was also designated the Typhoon, though this nomenclature is intended only for use in export markets outside Europe. Eurofighter remains the offical name in Europe, and Typhoon will not automatically be the EF2000s name with the four partner air forces when it enters service in 2002/3.


Eurofighter's air dominance supremacy and versatility as a multi-role combat aircraft is marked by its highly potent and comprehensive air-to-surface attack capability:
Air Interdiction - capable of delivering a large payload over long distances, by day or night. Multiple, flexible sensors coupled with passive modes of delivery, and the retention of a full air-to-air fit ensure a formidable weapon system
Close Air Support - ability to remain on task for long periods. Its sophisticated sensor suite allows close co-ordination with ground commanders, and the identification of individual targets
Suppression of Enemy Air Defences (SEAD) - the combination of pinpoint navigational accuracy, highly sophisticated onboard sensors and dedicated 'fire and forget' weapons, ensure effective targeting of enemy air defences
Maritime Attack - dedicated radar modes and datalink enable Eurofighter Typhoon to operate autonomously, or as part of an offensive force

Eurofighter’s high performance is matched by excellent all round vision and by sophisticated attack, identification and defence systems which include the ECR 90 long range radar and Infra Red Search and Track (IRST) system, advanced medium and short range air-to-air missiles and a comprehensive electronic warfare suite to enhance weapon system effectiveness and survivability. Eurofighter Typhoon is intentionally aerodynamically unstable to provide extremely high levels of agility, reduced drag and enhanced lift. The unstable design cannot be flown by conventional means and the pilot controls the aircraft via a computerised ‘fly by wire’ system.

The Eurojet EJ200 military turbofan was designed specifically to match Eurofighter Typhoon’s mission requirements. The overall design ensures a small lightweight engine with the thrust and strength to match the typically on demand reheat temperatures generated during combat. The EJ200 engine combines high thrust with low fuel consumption. To reduce ownership cost over Eurofighter Typhoon’s in-service life of 25 years or 6,000 flying hours, and to ensure maximum availability, the important areas of Reliability, Maintainability and Testability have been given equal priority to performance and flight safety.

Since Eurofighter first flew in Germany on 27 March 1994 all seven development aircraft have flown. Aircraft in the flight test programme have completed over 790 sorties (658 hours). Full carefree handling and a speed of Mach 2.0 have been achieved as have air to air refuelling and weapons firings of Sidewinder and AMRAAM. Pilots have described the aircraft as 'exhilarating' to fly.
Eurofighter production will make use of several innovations in production engineering. These include the use of a modern integrated design, manufacturing and management systems and the introduction of automated processes for the production of a number of aircraft components."


Production contract for the first batch of 148 aircraft were placed by the Eurofighter management agency NETMA (NATO Eurofighter 2000 and Tornado Management Agency) on behalf of the partner nations. Fixed prices were agreed prior to the commitment of each contract. The contracts were signed by NETMA, Eurofighter GmbH and Eurojet GmbH.

British Eurofighter aircraft will be assembled at British Aerospace sites in Lancashire from components manufactured by companies in the four partner nations. Rolls Royce will manufacture the engines, mainly in Bristol and Derby. In the other nations the respective partner companies will have their own assembly lines in Munich, Turin and Madrid. Some 200 UK companies, including GEC Marconi, Dowty, Lucas, Martin Baker, Normalair Garrett, Pilkington Thorn Optics, Smiths Industries, Computing Devices and Ultra Electronics, are involved in the development of a range of equipments for Eurofighter, including the radar and defensive aids subsystem. In the UK, over 6000 jobs depend on the Eurofighter development phase and this is expected to rise to some 14000 at the peak of production.

The UK intends to procure 232 aircraft to replace the Tornado F3 and the Jaguar. Deliveries to the Royal Air Force are scheduled to begin in June 2002 and run until the year 2014. The current estimated total procurement cost of the programme to the UK is £15.9Bn.

Specifications
Wing Span 10.95m
Length 14.96m
Height 5.28m
Wing Area 50m²
Foreplane Area 2.4m²
Empty Weight 9750 kg (approx)
Internal Fuel Load 4000 kg (approx)
External Store Load 6500 kg (approx)
Max T/O Weight 21000 kg
Power 2 EJ200 Turbofan Engines
20,000 lbf (90 kN) each with Afterburner
13,500 lbf (60 kN) each without Afterburner

Maximum Speed 2125 km/hr
Time to 10670m 2.5 minutes
Runway Requirement 700m
T/O run 300m
air combat mission

Combat Radius ground attack, lo-lo-lo : 601 km
ground attack, hi-lo-hi : 1389 km
air defence with 3hr CAP : 185 km
air defence with 10-min loiter : 1389 km

G Limits +9/-3 w/ int fuel and two AIM-120
Weapons & Stores Internally mounted 27mm Mauser gun
Total of 13 external stores stations: 5 (incl one wet) under fuselage and 4 (incl one wet) under each wing
Mix of Beyond Visual Range Air-to-Air Missiles (BVRAAM) and Short-Range Air-to-Air Missiles (SRAAM) carried externally
Four BVRAAM under fuselage in semi-conformal carriage configuration
Laser guided bombs
Advanced anti-armour weapons
Conventionally armed stand-off missiles






Sources and Resources
Eurofighter Official Hoempage
Eurofighter Image Bank by Enric Pastor


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Biographies - Grigori Efimovich Rasputin


Grigori Efimovich Rasputin
Rasputin was born in the Tyumen district of Siberia, far away from the glittering salons in the Imperial Capital of St. Petersburg. Even today he is a shadowy and mysterious character; a person of contradictory personality traits. Was he a miracle worker or just a crafty manipulator of the Imperial Family? While he was alive, witnesses, including doctors and skeptics, concluded he possessed some inexplicable power over the Tsarevich and his deadly episodes of bleeding. This mysterious ability to heal her son was enough to convince Aleksandrathat Rasputin, whatever people said of him, must have been sent by God. In her mind he was he the answer to her fervent prayers for God to save her son. It was impossible for her to believe that he could have been a wolf in sheep's clothing. His influence over politics has been greatly exaggerated. Rasputin was a convenient scapegoat for those who wanted to attack the Tsar's appointments and decisions, but who wouldn't confront Nicholas directly
Rasputin was close to the Tsaritsa's closest friend, Anya Vyrubova. Her devotion to him was absolute, which was reinforced after a terrible derailment of the train from Tsarskoe Selo to Petersburg in which Anna was almost killed. Although she survived the accident Anna's condition was so bad her doctors despaired of saving her life; her body was crushed and mangled. Rasputin came to her bedside, stood over Anna as she lay near death. He reached out and held her hand. Dripping with sweat, intensely focused, Rasputin repeated the words, "Annushka, Annushka, rise!". The drama of the moment was incredible. Anna suddenly awoke from her coma, opened her eyes and tried to rise from her bed. It was a miracle. As Rasputin staggered into the next room, he spoke, prophetically saying that although she would live, for the rest of her life Anna would be a cripple. So it came to be.

Rasputin tried to ingratiate himself with other members of the Romanov family, but most of them would have nothing to do with him. Olga, Nicholas sister, resented Rasputin's prying into her private life and rebuffed his offers of spiritual help in her marital problems.

A number of influential churchmen fell for Rasputin early in his 'career' as a holy man. Later, these supporters in the church hierarchy turned on him and attempted to send him away from St. Peterburg. Rasputin cunningly knew how to undermine his enemies in the church and soon had them exiled or in disgrace. A bishop or monk who opposed him might find themself suddenly sent to a remote monastery or far-away episcopal see. In government affairs Rasputin's power was an illusion, although the Petersburg press crowed about his influence over important government appointments. Gossip claimed he had seduced the Empress, her daughters, and Anna Vyrubova as well. These rumors, which reached the highest circles of society where they were deliciously repeated by Aleksandra's foes, drove Nicholas to distraction. The remoteness and isolation of the Imperial Family made it possible for the general public to believe these crazy stories, but the aristocracy knew they were groundless. Still they derived pleasure from seeing Aleksandra's named dragged through the mud. Rasputin made the talk worse by flaunting the Imperial families gifts, letters and the telephone calls he received from Aleksandra asking for his prayers. People believed he had an uncanny control over the Tsar and his wife. Rasputin enjoyed the celebrity status this reputation gave him.

The story of Rasputin's demise is well known. One night in December 1916, Rasputin was invited by Prince Felix Felixovich Yussupov to visit his palace on the Moika Canal. The pretext was the opportunity for Rasputin to meet Felix's wife, Irina, who was a great beauty and niece of the Tsar. Rasputin wanted to meet Irina and was flattered by Felix's attention. Felix claims he had been nurturing a relationship with Rasputin for a number of years before the invitation, although this relationship has never been fully explained. Felix always portrayed his murder of Rasputin as a political act to save Russia. Certainly, Felix had never shown any patriotic leanings before, so his murder of Rasputin is hard to explain from a political standpoint. It may have been there was some other, more personal, reason for Felix's desire to get rid of him. Besides Felix, who was the mastermind of the plot, the Tsar's first cousin and ward Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich Romanov, and a member of the Imperial Duma, Vladimir Mitrofanovich Purishkevich, were also involved in Rasputin's killing.



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